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The historical development of Oceanography can be divided into three main periods: 1. Navigational advancements Navigational advancements: Early problems to overcome were size and shape of the Earth; finding position. Many cultures traveled on the waters including northern Europeans, Micro- and Polynesians, Chinese, Mediterranean cultures, and nearly all societies which lived along the coastlines (by 3000 B.C.). Various trade routes have been recognized around the Mediterranean. Major contrast between cultures that traveled along the coasts and those that traveled across the open oceans. Library of Alexandria (3rd Century B.C.) was a major storehouse for navigational charts. One of the early librarians, Eratosthenes of Cyrene estimated circumference of the Earth based on shadows at Syrene and Alexandria and devised latitude and longitude lines. Later, Ptolemy (90-168 A.D.) computed a more erroneous value for the circumference of the Earth. Polynesians developed maps made with sticks and shells showing locations of islands and wind/wave directions. Prince Henry the Navigator published carefully constructed charts and utilized the Chinese compass. Created a warehouse of knowledge at Sagres (1451-1470). Much later, chronometer developed to measure longitude. Exploration and exploitation: Chinese launched amazing armadas with over 37,000 sailors to proclaim the glory and goodness of China around the globe under Zheng He (1405-1433). Instead of stealing from other cultures, they gave presents. Vikings were notorious for using the waterways to pillage coastal towns. In the process, probably "discovered" North America, or 'Vinland' as it was called. Many Europeans traveled to exploit new resources, such as Ferdinand Magellan the first sailor to sail around the world (though he died in the journey). Unfortunately, most of these navigators were lost at sea so only a handful made it into the history books. Scientific research: James Cook of the H.M.S. Endeavour-first careful scientific voyage (1768-1780). Edward Forbes (1839) biological sampling in environment; proclaimed no life below 1800 feet below sea level. United States Exploring Expedition (1838) under Lt. Charles Wilkes-hodgepodge expedition but produced hundreds of maps. Matthew Maury-American navigator credited as the "Father of Oceanography." Became director of the U.S. Navy Depot of Charts in 1842. Traded maps with other sailors and produced global charts of winds and currents. Charles Darwin on the H.M.S. Beagle (1831-1835) noted-among many other important observations-that coral atolls were due to growth on subsiding volcanic islands. Tides by Newton and Laplace; Stokes (1847) discussed boundary waves Major event was the voyage of the H.M.S. Challenger (1872-1876). Submarine geology founded by Sir John Murray's bottom samples on Challenge expedition Scandinavian Bjerknes Nansen (1900) carefully measured water temp and salinity Bathyscaph by Auguste Piccard (1948). In 1960, Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard reach 10,915 m in the Trieste. Record broken in 1995 by Keiko, a remotely controlled submersible. In the early 20th century, institutions of Oceanography began to develop. Early leaders were Scripps Institute of Oceanography (SIO), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI), and the Lahmont-Doherty Observational Laboratory. SIO was the home of many pioneers of Oceanography, such as Roger Revelle, Francis Parker Shepard, H. W. Menard, John Isaacs, Douglas Inman, Robert Dill, Tanya Atwater, Ken Macdonald, and many others. German ship Meteor did first echo soundings (1924) During WWII major advancements in radar, weather/tide/wave prediction, charting of sea floor. SCUBA invented by Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan (1943) allowed researchers to map and collect samples underwater. Other underwater devises include the diving bell and various gas mixtures. R. S. Dietz and B. Holden produced detailed maps of the sea floor; major factor in development of Plate Tectonic theory (first article of seafloor spreading by Dietz in 1961). Submarine canyons revealed by Francis Parker Shepard, Robert F. Dill (SIO) and Maurice Ewing (Columbia University) through manned submersible studies. Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) proped the deep ocean sediments with the drilling ship Glomar Challenger. In 1985, the DSDP was replaced by the Ocean Drilling Project (ODP) with the new ship, JOIDES Resolution.
http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/7557/cook.html Information about James Cook. Site is produced by a family member! Good drawings and lots of information. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/abyss/frontier/discoveries.html Very nice chronology of undersea exploration. Can access main site of the Abyss Program. http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/exploring.html Site maintained by the United States Geological Survey for deep sea exploration. http://www-odp.tamu.edu/origin.html Site for the history of the ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) at Texas A & M University. Has links to JOIDES program. http://www.cousteau.org/AN/jycousteauan.html Official site for the Cousteau Society. This links is information about Jacques Cousteau and mentions the invention of SCUBA and the role of the research vessel, Calypso. http://www.cfhq.com/projects/blue_hole Neat site that describes ongoing research of blue holes (oceanic caves) using SCUBA to great depths-about 500' below sea level!! http://www.maritime.org/hnsa-triesteii.htm Information about the deep diving bathyscaph Trieste II, now on display in Washington State. http://www.bryrus.net/vikingmodels Just for kicks...a company that sells models of various research vessels, including the deep diving submersibles.
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